Hicken and Mebane (2015) also consider whether anomalies in election results are geographically clustered. This might indicate malpractice in certain parts of the territory (Hicken and Mebane, 2015: 13, Kobak et al., 2016a). Indeed, there is a history of electoral fraud being particularly conducted in the periphery of countries, and/or in regions with different ethnicities. Historically and still today, there are cases where some parts of a country are ruled by authoritarian sub-national governments that do not allow the same political freedoms as other regions. These regions are particularly vulnerable to electoral manipulations, inflated turnout, and a lack of political pluralism (Snyder, 2001). However, factors unrelated to election manipulation can lead to extremely different distributions in the election results in different geographic regions, and to bimodal distributions of the results. For instance, candidates generally win more votes in their home regions, and regions usually differ politically due to a different socio-economic or ethnic composition (Caramani, 2004). Peculiarities in turnout might be due to parallel local/regional elections, local weather conditions, or differences in administrative practices and rules across regions.