In summary, second chambers seem to be intended generally to ensure some representation of sub-national entities, in particular in federal states. This seemingly permanent feature was present at the time of the drafting of the ECHR and of the ICCPR and still is present today. It is therefore very unlikely that these treaties could be interpreted as requiring a radical change of the constitutional order of most countries with a bicameral system. At least, systems ensuring no equal representation of the population in second chambers, but aiming to ensure other aspects of the principle of equality, should be considered in conformity with these treaties.